Radar.Techniquest.Using.Array.Antennas: Radar.Techniquest.Using.Array.Antennas.part2.rar

Published by: The Institution of Electrical Engineers, London,
United Kingdom
© 2001: The Institution of Electrical Engineers
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British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data
Radar techniques using array antennas.
(Radar, sonar, navigation and avionics series; no. 10)
1. Radar 2. Antenna arrays
I. Wirth, W.
621.3' 8483
ISBN 0 85296 798 5
Typeset by Newgen Imaging Systems, India
Printed in England by Antony Rowe Ltd., Chippenham

Preface ................................................................................ xv1. Introduction ................................................................. 12. Signal Representation and MathematicalTools ............................................................................ 52.1 Vectors, Matrices ........................................................... 52.2 Computing with Matrices ............................................... 62.2.1 Addition and Subtraction .............................. 62.2.2 Multiplication ................................................ 72.2.3 Identity Matrix .............................................. 82.2.4 Inverse Matrix .............................................. 92.2.5 Eigenvalue Decomposition ........................... 92.2.6 QR Decomposition ....................................... 102.3 Fourier Transform .......................................................... 102.3.1 Fast Fourier Transform, FFT ........................ 122.4 Filter in the Frequency and Time Domain ..................... 122.5 Correlation ..................................................................... 152.6 Wiener Khintchine Theorem .......................................... 162.7 References .................................................................... 173. Statistical Signal Theory ............................................ 193.1 The General Tasks of Signal Processing ...................... 193.2 Introduction to Basics of Statistics ................................. 203.2.1 Probabilities for Discrete RandomVariables ...................................................... 21viii ContentsThis page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation.3.2.2 Continuous Random Variables ..................... 233.2.3 Functions of Random Variables ................... 263.2.4 Statistical Averages ..................................... 303.2.5 Correlation ................................................... 323.2.6 Gaussian Density Function .......................... 323.2.7 Correlated Gaussian Variables .................... 333.2.8 Complex Gaussian Variables ....................... 343.3 Likelihood-ratio Test ...................................................... 353.4 Parameter Estimation .................................................... 403.4.1 Variance of the Estimate andCramér-Rao Limit ........................................ 413.5 Estimation of a Signal .................................................... 453.5.1 Maximum-likelihood Estimation .................... 453.5.2 Signal Estimation with Least-meansquareError ................................................. 463.5.3 Interference Suppression by theInverse Covariance ...................................... 473.5.4 Improvement of Signal-to-noise-andinterferenceRatio (SNIR) ............................. 493.6 Summary ....................................................................... 493.7 References .................................................................... 504. Array Antennas ........................................................... 514.1 Array Factor ................................................................... 524.2 Array Parameters .......................................................... 574.2.1 Half-power Beamwidth ................................. 584.2.2 Bandwidth Limitation with PhaseSteering ....................................................... 584.2.3 Antenna Element Spacing WithoutGrating Lobes .............................................. 60Contents ixThis page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation.4.2.4 Gain of Regularly Spaced PlanarArrays with d = λ/2 ....................................... 614.2.5 Reduction of Sidelobes by Tapering ............ 614.3 Circular Array ................................................................. 644.4 Phase and Amplitude Errors ......................................... 654.5 Architectures of Passive and Active ArrayAntennas ........................................................................ 714.5.1 Comparison of Efficiency for Active andPassive Arrays ............................................. 754.5.2 Radar Equation for Active Arrays ................. 754.6 Concepts for an Extended Field of View ....................... 764.6.1 Volume Array for Complete AzimuthCoverage ..................................................... 774.7 Monitoring of Phased-array Antennas .......................... 794.7.1 Antenna Measurement ................................. 804.7.2 Transmit/Receive Module (TRM)Monitoring .................................................... 814.8 Appendix: Taylor and Bayliss Weighting ....................... 834.9 References .................................................................... 855. Beamforming ............................................................... 875.1 Single Receiving Beam ................................................. 895.1.1 RF Beamforming .......................................... 895.1.2 Subarrays and Partial DigitalBeamforming ............................................... 895.1.3 Dynamic Range Requirements .................... 915.1.4 Subarray Configuration for Digital Sumand Difference Beamforming ....................... 925.1.5 Correction of Antenna Failures .................... 965.1.6 Digital Beamforming at Element Level ......... 975.2 Broadband Beamforming .............................................. 97x ContentsThis page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation.5.3 Multiple Beams .............................................................. 1015.3.1 RF Multiple Beamforming ............................. 1025.3.2 RF Multiple Beamforming UsingSubarrays .................................................... 1035.3.3 IF Multiple Beamforming by a ResistiveNetwork ....................................................... 1045.3.4 Baseband Multiple Beamforming ................. 1045.3.5 Time-multiplex Beamforming forArbitrary Directions ...................................... 1045.3.6 Digital Multiple Beamforming UsingSubarrays .................................................... 1045.3.7 Multiple Beam Cluster for TargetSearch ......................................................... 1065.4 Deterministic Spatial Filtering ........................................ 1075.5 References .................................................................... 1096. Sampling and Digitisation of Signals ........................ 1116.1 Analytical Signal ............................................................ 1116.2 Sampling and Interpolation ............................................ 1146.3 Extraction of the Components I and Q in DigitalFormat ............................................................................ 1166.4 Third-order Intercept Point (TOI) and DynamicRange ............................................................................ 1216.5 References .................................................................... 1237. Pulse Compression with Polyphase Codes ............. 1257.1 Introduction .................................................................... 1257.2 Requirements and Basic Structure for PulseCompression .................................................................. 1267.3 Binary Phase Codes ...................................................... 1277.4 Polyphase Code as an Approximation of LinearFrequency Modulation ................................................... 128Contents xiThis page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation.7.5 Reduction of Range Sidelobes ...................................... 1337.5.1 Application of a Weighting Function ............. 1337.5.2 Application of a MismatchedLS Filter ....................................................... 1357.5.3 Application of an Estimation Filter ................ 1387.6 Reduction of Sidelobes by a Phase Code fromNonlinear Frequency Modulation .................................. 1387.7 Complementary Codes .................................................. 1437.8 Polyphase Code with Periodic Repetition ..................... 1447.9 Pulse Eclipsing .............................................................. 1457.10 High Range Resolution by Oversampling and LSPulse Compression ....................................................... 1467.10.1 Calculation of the Filter Function forPulse Compression ...................................... 1487.10.2 Subpulse Filter ............................................. 1487.10.3 Gain or SNR Loss ........................................ 1497.10.4 Pulse Compression of SimulatedSignals ......................................................... 1497.10.5 Compression of Measured EchoSignals ......................................................... 1517.11 Conclusions ................................................................... 1537.12 References .................................................................... 1548. Detection of Targets by a Pulse Series ..................... 1558.1 Filter against Fixed Clutter ............................................. 1578.2 Doppler Filter Processor ................................................ 1608.3 Adaptive Suppression of Weather Clutter ..................... 1638.3.1 Computation of the Gain .............................. 1658.3.2 Evaluation of ExperimentalSignals ......................................................... 1678.4 Suppression of Sea Clutter ........................................... 169xii ContentsThis page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation.8.5 Estimation of Doppler Frequency .................................. 1738.5.1 Accuracy of Doppler Estimation byCramér-Rao Bound ...................................... 1768.5.2 Simplified Doppler Estimator ........................ 1778.6 Coherent Detection with Long Pulse Series ................. 1788.6.1 Variable Doppler Frequency of theTarget Signal ............................................... 1788.6.2 Coherent Test Function for Long EchoSeries .......................................................... 1808.6.3 Comparison of Detection Performanceof the Filter Bank and ACE Test forLFM Doppler Signals ................................... 1828.7 Conclusions ................................................................... 1848.8 References .................................................................... 1859. Sequential Detection .................................................. 1879.1 Incoherent Detection ..................................................... 1899.2 Multiple Range Elements .............................................. 1909.2.1 Independent Test of All RangeElements ...................................................... 1909.2.2 Common Test for All Range Elements ......... 1919.2.3 Combined Test with Range-dependentDesign Signal ............................................... 1919.2.4 Comparison of the Test for MultipleRange Cells with the Fixed SampleSize Test ...................................................... 1939.2.5 Sequential Detection with a Filter forthe Rejection of Stationary Clutter ............... 1949.3 Coherent Test Function ................................................. 1959.3.1 Test Function with AutocorrelationEstimates (ACE) .......................................... 196Contents xiiiThis page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation.9.3.2 Sequential Test Function withAutocorrelation Estimates ............................ 1969.3.3 Simulation Studies for a Comparison ofIncoherent and Coherent SequentialTests ............................................................ 2019.3.4 Gain Comparison of the CoherentSequential and Fixed Sample SizeTest ............................................................. 2049.3.5 Extension for Multiple RangeElements ...................................................... 2059.3.6 Variable Doppler Frequency of theTarget Signal ............................................... 2089.4 Comparison of Detection Procedures ........................... 2089.5 Adaptation to the Noise Level and EnergyManagement .................................................................. 2099.6 Sequential Test for Long Signal Series ......................... 2109.6.1 Sequential Test with CoherentSections ....................................................... 2119.6.2 Simulation Studies ....................................... 2129.7 Experimental System ..................................................... 2159.8 Conclusions ................................................................... 2189.9 References .................................................................... 21910. Adaptive Beamforming for JammerSuppression ................................................................ 22110.1 Deterministic Generation of Pattern Notches ................ 22310.1.1 LMS Weighting ............................................ 22410.1.2 Multiple Beam Approach .............................. 22610.1.3 Limit for Number of Notches ........................ 22710.2 Adaptive Jammer Suppression ..................................... 22810.2.1 Optimal Processing ...................................... 22910.2.2 Illustration with a Model ............................... 230xiv ContentsThis page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation.10.2.3 Orthogonalisation and EigenmatrixProjection ..................................................... 23110.3 Antenna Architecture for Adaptation ............................. 23410.3.1 Adaptation Before Beamforming .................. 23410.3.2 Adaptive Beamforming withSubarrays .................................................... 23510.4 Adaptation Algorithms ................................................... 23610.4.1 Sample Matrix Estimation ............................ 23610.4.2 Projection Methods ...................................... 23710.4.3 Channel Errors ............................................. 23910.4.4 Weighted Projection: Lean MatrixInversion Method ......................................... 24210.5 Realisation Aspects ....................................................... 24410.6 Experiments with the ELRA System ............................. 24510.7 Conclusions ................................................................... 25010.8 References .................................................................... 25111. Monopulse Direction Estimation ............................... 25311.1 Likelihood Direction Estimation ..................................... 25311.2 Experimental Monopulse Correction for FailingElements ........................................................................ 25811.3 Variance of Monopulse Estimate .................................. 26011.4 Monopulse Correction against Jamming ....................... 26611.4.1 Correction with Likelihood Estimation .......... 26711.4.2 Correction in Expectation ............................. 27011.4.3 Statistical Performance Analysis ofEstimation .................................................... 27511.5 Polarisation Independence ............................................ 27911.6 Indication of Multiple Targets ........................................ 27911.7 Conclusions ................................................................... 28011.8 References .................................................................... 281Contents xvThis page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation.12. Superresolution in Angle ........................................... 28312.1 Introduction .................................................................... 28312.2 Parametric Estimation ................................................... 28412.2.1 Resolution Limit from Cramér-RaoInequality ..................................................... 29212.3 Experimental Verification ofSuperresolution .............................................................. 29512.4 Resolution by Angular Spectral EstimationAlgorithms ...................................................................... 29812.4.1 Resolution and the Dimension of theSignal Subspace .......................................... 30012.4.2 Estimation of the Signal SubspaceDimension .................................................... 30212.5 Conclusions ................................................................... 30512.6 References .................................................................... 30513. Space-time Adaptive Processing .............................. 30913.1 Introduction .................................................................... 30913.2 Doppler-shifted Clutter Spectrum .................................. 30913.3 Space-time Processing ................................................. 31213.4 Necessary Degrees of Freedom ................................... 31513.5 Suboptimal Concept with FIR Filter: Reduction ofTime Dimension ............................................................. 31713.6 Suboptimal Concept with Subarrays: Reduction ofSpatial Dimension .......................................................... 31913.7 Adaptive Processing ...................................................... 32313.8 Sideways-looking Radar ................................................ 32513.9 Conclusions ................................................................... 32613.10 References .................................................................... 326xvi ContentsThis page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation.14. Synthetic Aperture Radar with Active PhasedArrays .......................................................................... 32914.1 Basic Principle of SAR ................................................... 32914.2 Problems of Moving-target Detection andLocation ......................................................................... 33514.3 Clutter Suppression with Multichannel ArrayRadar ............................................................................. 33614.4 Target Location .............................................................. 34314.5 SAR/MTI Processing ..................................................... 34314.6 Jammer Suppression ..................................................... 34514.7 Object Height by Interferometry .................................... 34714.8 Experimental System AER and Results ........................ 35014.9 Summary and Motivation for SAR with ActivePhased-array Antennas ................................................. 35214.10 References .................................................................... 35515. Inverse Synthetic Aperture Radar (ISAR) ................. 35715.1 Introduction: Basic Principles ........................................ 35715.2 Synthetic Aperture and Beamforming by TargetMotion ............................................................................ 35915.3 Target Cross-range Image ............................................ 36015.4 Focusing ........................................................................ 36215.4.1 Range Focusing and Range Walk ................ 36215.4.2 Focusing with Straight-lineAssumption .................................................. 36415.4.3 Focusing for Arbitrary Flight Paths ............... 36515.5 High Range Resolution ................................................. 37215.6 Alternative Image Planes .............................................. 37615.7 Conclusions ................................................................... 37715.8 References .................................................................... 377Contents xviiThis page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation.16. Target Classification .................................................. 37916.1 Fluctuation Effects ......................................................... 37916.2 Doppler Spectrum Evaluation ....................................... 38216.3 References .................................................................... 38917. Experimental Phased-array System ELRA ............... 39117.1 System Overview ........................................................... 39217.2 Antenna Parameter Selection ....................................... 39417.3 Antenna Elements and Modules ................................... 39617.4 Antenna Control and Monitoring ................................... 39917.5 Radar Functions and Waveforms of the ELRASystem ........................................................................... 40417.5.1 Available Codes and Transmit Pulses .......... 40617.5.2 Time Budget for a Parameter Example ........ 40717.6 Digital Signal Processing ............................................... 40917.7 Array Signal Processing ................................................ 41217.8 Control System, Operation and Display ofFunctions and Results ................................................... 41217.9 Experiments with ELRA ................................................. 41717.10 Conclusions ................................................................... 41717.11 References .................................................................... 41818. Floodlight Radar Concept (OLPI) .............................. 41918.1 Introduction .................................................................... 41918.2 The Proposed Concept ................................................. 42018.3 The Transmitter ............................................................. 42118.4 The Receiving System .................................................. 42118.5 Resolution Cell ............................................................... 42418.6 The Phase Code ............................................................ 42518.7 Signal Processing .......................................................... 42618.8 Range Performance ...................................................... 428xviii ContentsThis page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation.18.9 Coherent and Sequential Test Function withACE ................................................................................ 42918.10 OLPI and Multifunction Radar ....................................... 43018.11 Experimental Results ..................................................... 43118.12 Detection and Classification of HoveringHelicopters ..................................................................... 43218.12.1 Classification by Flash Period ...................... 43618.12.2 ISAR Image and Spectrum of RotorBlades .......................................................... 43718.13 Spatial Coding ............................................................... 43918.14 Summary and Conclusions ........................................... 44518.15 References .................................................................... 44619. System and Parameter Considerations .................... 44919.1 Parameter Selection for Search and Tracking .............. 44919.1.1 Search Period .............................................. 45019.1.2 False-alarm Probability ................................ 45419.1.3 Beam Position Separation ............................ 45519.1.4 Range Resolution ........................................ 45519.1.5 Tracking Parameters .................................... 45619.2 Search Procedure .......................................................... 45819.3 References .................................................................... 459Glossary ............................................................................. 467Index ................................................................................... 471

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Radar.Techniquest.Using.Array.Antennas [修改]

Radar.Techniquest.Using.Array.Antennas [修改]

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