捕获.JPG

Contents
Preface ...................................................................................................................xvii
Acknowledgments .................................................................................................xix
Chapter 1 Fundamental Concepts in Electromagnetics ........................................1
1.1 Introduction .......................................................................................................1
1.2 Fields .................................................................................................................1
1.2.1 Electric Fields ........................................................................................2
1.2.2 Magnetic Fields .....................................................................................3
1.2.3 Electromagnetic Fields ..........................................................................6
1.2.4 Electromagnetic Waves .........................................................................7
1.3 Electromagnetic Induction .............................................................................. 10
1.4 Electromagnetic Energy .................................................................................. 12
1.5 Electromagnetic Spectrum .............................................................................. 12
1.6 Sources of Electric and Magnetic Fields ........................................................ 14
1.6.1 DC Sources .......................................................................................... 14
1.6.1.1 Magnetosphere ...................................................................... 15
1.6.1.2 Magnetic Resonance Imaging ............................................... 16
1.6.1.3 DC Power Supply System ..................................................... 16
1.6.2 AC Sources .......................................................................................... 17
1.6.2.1 Single-Conductor Source ...................................................... 17
1.6.2.2 Dual-Conductor Source ........................................................ 18
1.6.2.3 Loop Source .......................................................................... 18
1.6.2.4 Three-Phase Source .............................................................. 19
1.7 Sources of Radiofrequency Radiation ............................................................ 19
1.7.1 Generators ........................................................................................... 21
1.7.2 Transmission Paths .............................................................................. 21
1.7.2.1 Transmission Lines ............................................................... 21
1.7.2.2 Coaxial Cables ......................................................................22
1.7.2.3 Waveguides ...........................................................................22
1.7.3 Antennas ..............................................................................................23
1.7.3.1 Antenna Properties ...............................................................23
1.7.3.2 Types of Antennas ................................................................25
References ................................................................................................................27
Chapter 2 Electromagnetic Interactions with Biological Systems ......................29
2.1 Introduction .....................................................................................................29
2.2 Interaction Mechanisms ..................................................................................30
2.2.1 Mechanisms for Electric and Magnetic Fields ....................................30
2.2.1.1 Induced Fields and Currents .................................................30
2.2.1.2 Thermal Noise ....................................................................... 31
2.2.1.3 Shot Noise ............................................................................. 32
2.2.1.4 Endogenous Fields ................................................................ 32
2.2.2 Mechanisms for Radio Frequency Radiation ...................................... 32
2.2.2.1 Thermal Mechanisms ........................................................... 32
2.2.2.2 Nonthermal/Athermal Interaction Mechanisms ................... 33
2.3 Electric Field Effects .......................................................................................34
2.3.1 Polarization of Bound Charges............................................................34
2.3.2 Orientation of Permanent Electric Dipoles ......................................... 35
2.3.3 Drift of Conduction Charges ............................................................... 35
2.3.4 Pearl-Chain Effects and Electrorotation ............................................. 35
2.4 Magnetic Field Effects ....................................................................................36
2.4.1 Induced Currents .................................................................................36
2.4.2 Magnetic Biosubstances ......................................................................37
2.4.3 Radical Pairs ........................................................................................38
2.4.4 Cell Membrane and the Chemical Link ..............................................38
2.4.5 Summary of ELF Interaction Mechanisms .........................................39
2.5 Biological and Health Effects .........................................................................39
2.5.1 Cells and Membranes ..........................................................................39
2.5.2 Tissues ................................................................................................. 41
2.5.3 Changes in Protein Conformation ....................................................... 42
2.5.4 Changes in Binding Probability .......................................................... 42
2.5.5 Absorption of Vibrational States of Biological Components .............. 43
2.5.6 Genetic Material .................................................................................. 43
2.5.7 Carcinogenesis .....................................................................................44
2.5.8 Hypothesis of Melatonin ..................................................................... 45
2.5.9 Cancer Mechanisms ............................................................................46
2.5.10 Brain and Nervous System .................................................................. 47
2.5.10.1 Brain ......................................................................................48
2.5.10.2 Physiological Effects .............................................................49
2.6 Energy and Frequency ....................................................................................50
2.6.1 Effect of Frequency .............................................................................50
2.6.2 Low-Frequency Fields from Demodulation ........................................50
2.7 Concluding Remarks ....................................................................................... 51
References ................................................................................................................ 52
PART I Health Risks of Electromagnetic Energy
Chapter 3 Guidelines and Measurement for Electric and Magnetic Fields ........59
3.1 Introduction .....................................................................................................59
3.2 Exposure Guidelines .......................................................................................60
3.2.1 Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers ................................ 61
3.2.2 National Radiological Protection Board ............................................. 62
3.2.3 International Commission on Nonionizing Radiation Protection ....... 62
3.2.4 Swedish Standards ...............................................................................63
3.2.5 Restrictions ..........................................................................................63
3.3 Measurement Techniques ................................................................................63
3.3.1 Frequency and Object Size ..................................................................63
3.3.2 Electric Field Measurements ...............................................................64
3.3.3 Magnetic Field Measurements ............................................................65
3.3.4 Simplifi ed Meters ................................................................................66
3.4 Measurement Surveys .....................................................................................67
3.4.1 Sources of EMF Exposure ...................................................................68
3.4.1.1 Residential Areas ..................................................................68
3.4.1.2 Power Lines and Cables ........................................................68
3.4.2 Site Surveys .........................................................................................69
3.4.3 Electric Appliances .............................................................................69
3.5 Dosimetry ........................................................................................................72
3.6 Field Management ...........................................................................................73
3.6.1 Mitigation Techniques for Power Lines...............................................73
3.6.1.1 Underground Cables ..............................................................73
3.6.1.2 Rights of Way ........................................................................ 74
3.6.1.3 Cancellation Techniques ....................................................... 74
3.6.2 Reducing the Level of ELF Exposure ................................................. 74
3.6.3 Mitigation of Electric Fields ................................................................ 75
3.6.4 Mitigation of Magnetic Fields ............................................................. 75
3.6.4.1 Passive Shielding Techniques ............................................... 76
3.6.4.2 Active Shielding Techniques .................................................77
3.6.5 Protection from VDTs .........................................................................77
References ................................................................................................................ 78
Chapter 4 Bioeffects of Electric and Magnetic Fields ........................................83
4.1 Introduction .....................................................................................................83
4.2 Epidemiological Studies ..................................................................................83
4.2.1 Public Environments ...........................................................................84
4.2.1.1 Childhood Cancer and Leukemia .........................................85
4.2.1.2 Breast Cancer ........................................................................86
4.2.2 Occupational Environments ................................................................87
4.2.2.1 Adult Cancers ........................................................................87
4.2.2.2 Cardiovascular Diseases ....................................................... 91
4.2.2.3 Neurodegenerative Diseases ................................................. 91
4.2.2.4 Reproductive Toxic Effects ...................................................92
4.2.3 Summary of Epidemiological Studies .................................................94
4.3 Cellular and Animal Studies ...........................................................................94
4.3.1 Melatonin Hypothesis ..........................................................................94
4.3.2 Genotoxicity and Carcinogenicity .......................................................95
4.3.3 Cell Functions ......................................................................................96
4.3.3.1 Intracellular Calcium ............................................................96
4.3.3.2 Cell Proliferation ...................................................................96
4.3.3.3 Stress Response .....................................................................97
4.3.3.4 Ornithine Decarboxylase (ODC) ..........................................97
4.3.3.5 Immune System .....................................................................97
4.3.4 Animal Cancer Studies........................................................................98
4.3.5 Noncancer Animal Studies ..................................................................98
4.3.5.1 Behavioral Effects .................................................................98
4.3.5.2 Blood–Brain Barrier .............................................................99
4.3.5.3 Reproductive and Development ............................................99
4.4 Clinical Studies .............................................................................................100
4.4.1 Perception and Sensitivity .................................................................100
4.4.2 Brain and Behavior ............................................................................ 101
4.4.3 Cardiovascular System ...................................................................... 102
4.4.4 Melatonin in Humans ........................................................................ 102
4.5 Concluding Remarks and Future Research ................................................... 103
4.5.1 Review Studies .................................................................................. 104
4.5.2 Future Research ................................................................................. 105
References .............................................................................................................. 105
Chapter 5 Radio Frequency Standards and Dosimetry .................................... 119
5.1 Introduction ................................................................................................... 119
5.2 RF Exposure Guidelines ...............................................................................120
5.2.1 Major Guidelines ...............................................................................120
5.2.2 IEEE Guidelines ................................................................................ 121
5.2.2.1 IEEE Standard C95.1 .......................................................... 121
5.2.2.2 IEEE Standard 1528 ............................................................ 122
5.2.2.3 IEEE C95.1-2005 ................................................................ 123
5.2.3 ICNIRP Guidelines ...........................................................................124
5.2.3.1 CENELEC EN 50392:2004 ................................................125
5.2.3.2 EC Directive 2004/40/EC ...................................................125
5.2.4 Safety Factors .................................................................................... 127
5.2.5 Incorporating Specifi c Absorption Rate ............................................ 127
5.3 Measurement Surveys ................................................................................... 129
5.3.1 Base Transceiver Stations .................................................................. 130
5.3.1.1 Shielding ............................................................................. 130
5.3.1.2 Exposure Levels .................................................................. 131
5.3.2 Broadcast Stations ............................................................................. 132
5.3.3 Traffi c Radar Devices ........................................................................ 132
5.3.4 RF Heaters and Sealers ..................................................................... 133
5.3.5 Microwave Ovens .............................................................................. 133
5.3.6 RF Environmental Levels .................................................................. 133
5.3.7 Magnetic Resonance Imaging and Spectroscopy Systems ............... 134
5.4 Personal Safety Assessment .......................................................................... 134
5.4.1 Whole-Body Phantoms ...................................................................... 134
5.4.2 In-Head Assessments......................................................................... 135
5.4.2.1 Adult Size Heads ................................................................. 136
5.4.2.2 Child Size Heads ................................................................. 137
5.4.2.3 Shielding for Mobile Antennas ........................................... 140
5.5 Future Development ...................................................................................... 140
5.5.1 Harmonization of Safety Standards .................................................. 141
5.5.2 Engineering Requirements and Dosimetric Information .................. 142
References .............................................................................................................. 143
Chapter 6 Bioeffects and Health Implications of Radiofrequency
Radiation .......................................................................................... 149
6.1 Introduction ................................................................................................... 149
6.2 Epidemiological Studies ................................................................................ 150
6.2.1 Occupational Exposure Studies ......................................................... 150
6.2.1.1 Navy Personnel and Military Workers................................ 150
6.2.1.2 Traffi c Radar Devices ......................................................... 151
6.2.1.3 RF Heat Sealers................................................................... 151
6.2.1.4 Telecom Operators .............................................................. 151
6.2.2 Public Exposure Studies .................................................................... 152
6.2.2.1 Radio and TV Transmitters................................................. 152
6.2.2.2 Mobile and Cordless Phones ............................................... 152
6.2.3 Summary of Epidemiological Studies ............................................... 156
6.3 Cellular and Animal Studies ......................................................................... 156
6.3.1 Genetic Toxicology ............................................................................ 157
6.3.2 Cell Function ..................................................................................... 158
6.3.2.1 Cell Proliferation ................................................................. 158
6.3.2.2 Intracellular Calcium .......................................................... 158
6.3.2.3 Ornithine Decarboxylase .................................................... 158
6.3.3 Hormonal Secretion ........................................................................... 159
6.3.4 Animal Cancer Experiments ............................................................. 159
6.3.5 Noncancer Animal Studies ................................................................ 160
6.3.5.1 Morphological and Physiological Effects ........................... 160
6.3.5.2 Testicular Function and Development ................................. 160
6.3.5.3 Cataracts .............................................................................. 160
6.3.5.4 Behavioral Effects ............................................................... 160
6.3.5.5 Blood–Brain Barrier ........................................................... 161
6.4 Clinical Studies ............................................................................................. 161
6.4.1 Perception and Auditory Response ................................................... 161
6.4.2 Thermoregulatory Responses ............................................................ 162
6.4.3 Ocular Effects .................................................................................... 163
6.4.4 Brain Function ................................................................................... 163
6.4.5 Cardiovascular Diseases .................................................................... 165
6.4.6 Melatonin ........................................................................................... 165
6.5 Concluding Remarks and Future Research ................................................... 165
6.5.1 Risk for Children ............................................................................... 166
6.5.2 Research ............................................................................................ 167
References .............................................................................................................. 168
Chapter 7 Electromagnetic Risk Analysis ........................................................ 179
7.1 Introduction ................................................................................................... 179
7.2 Risk Assessment ........................................................................................... 180
7.2.1 Scientifi c Evidence ............................................................................ 180
7.2.2 Setting Standards ............................................................................... 182
7.2.3 Structured Risk Assessment .............................................................. 183
7.3 Perception of Risk ......................................................................................... 183
7.3.1 Public Perception of Risk .................................................................. 184
7.3.2 Factors Relevant to Electromagnetic Fields ...................................... 184
7.3.3 Health Consequences of Risk Perception .......................................... 185
7.4 Risk Management ......................................................................................... 186
7.4.1 Involving the Public ........................................................................... 186
7.4.2 Public Meetings ................................................................................. 187
7.4.3 Precautionary Approaches ................................................................ 187
7.4.4 Public Understanding of Precautionary Actions ............................... 188
7.5 Risk Communication .................................................................................... 188
7.5.1 Role of Communication in Risk Assessment .................................... 189
7.5.2 Role of Communication in Risk Management .................................. 189
7.5.3 Media Coverage ................................................................................. 190
7.5.4 Role of Industry ................................................................................. 191
7.5.5 Role of the Internet ............................................................................ 191
7.5.6 Communication with Children .......................................................... 191
7.6 Trends and Future Research .......................................................................... 192
7.6.1 Challenges and Implications ............................................................. 192
7.6.2 Research and Policy .......................................................................... 193
7.6.3 Concluding Remarks ......................................................................... 194
References .............................................................................................................. 194
PART II Therapeutic Applications
of Electromagnetic Energy
Chapter 8 Electromagnetic Therapy ................................................................. 199
8.1 Introduction ................................................................................................... 199
8.2 History of Electromagnetic Therapy............................................................. 201
8.3 Mechanism of Thermal Injury ......................................................................202
8.4 Thermal Therapy Treatment Protocol...........................................................203
8.5 Possible Side Effects of Electromagnetic Energy and Heat ..........................204
8.5.1 Tissue Physiology and Response to Heat ..........................................205
8.5.2 Cellular Responses ............................................................................206
8.5.3 Immunological Effects ......................................................................207
8.5.4 Cardiovascular Responses .................................................................207
8.5.5 Nervous System Responses ...............................................................208
8.5.6 Carcinogenic Effects .........................................................................209
8.6 Concluding Remarks ..................................................................................... 210
8.6.1 Risk Assessment ................................................................................ 210
8.6.2 Trends in Equipment Development ................................................... 211
8.6.3 Future Research Directions ............................................................... 212
References .............................................................................................................. 212
Chapter 9 Electromagnetic Hyperthermia ........................................................ 221
9.1 Introduction ................................................................................................... 221
9.2 Biological Rationale ......................................................................................222
9.2.1 Heat Alone .........................................................................................223
9.2.2 Heat and Radiation ............................................................................224
9.2.3 Heat and Drugs ..................................................................................224
9.3 Types of Hyperthermia .................................................................................224
9.3.1 Local Hyperthermia ..........................................................................225
9.3.1.1 External Local Hyperthermia .............................................225
9.3.1.2 Intraluminal Local Hyperthermia.......................................226
9.3.1.3 Interstitial Local Hyperthermia ..........................................227
9.3.2 Regional Hyperthermia .....................................................................227
9.3.2.1 Deep Regional Hyperthermia .............................................228
9.3.2.2 Regional Perfusion Hyperthermia ......................................228
9.3.2.3 Other Regional Hyperthermic Techniques .........................229
9.3.3 Whole-Body Hyperthermia ...............................................................229
9.3.4 Extracellular Hyperthermia ...............................................................230
9.4 Hyperthermia Heating Devices.....................................................................230
9.4.1 Techniques ......................................................................................... 231
9.4.1.1 Ultrasound ........................................................................... 231
9.4.1.2 Radiofrequency ................................................................... 231
9.4.1.3 Microwaves ......................................................................... 232
9.4.2 External RF Applicators .................................................................... 232
9.4.2.1 Capacitive Heating .............................................................. 232
9.4.2.2 Inductive Heating ................................................................ 233
9.4.2.3 Hybrid Heating Systems .....................................................234
9.4.3 External Radiative EM Devices ........................................................234
9.4.3.1 Single Applicators ............................................................... 235
9.4.3.2 Multielement Array Applicators ......................................... 235
9.4.4 Interstitial and Intracavitary Devices ................................................237
9.4.5 Nanotechnology-Based Sources ........................................................238
9.5 Hyperthermia with Other Modalities ...........................................................240
9.5.1 Hyperthermia and Radiation .............................................................240
9.5.2 Hyperthermia and Chemotherapy ..................................................... 241
9.5.3 Hyperthermia and Radiochemotherapy ............................................242
9.5.4 Hyperthermia and Gene Therapy ......................................................242
9.6 Status and Trends ..........................................................................................243
9.6.1 Biological and Physiological Mechanisms ........................................243
9.6.2 Technical and Clinical Challenges ....................................................243
9.6.3 Standardization ..................................................................................245
9.6.4 Future Research .................................................................................245
References ..............................................................................................................245
Chapter 10 Radio Frequency and Microwave Ablation ....................................265
10.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................265
10.2 Thermal Ablation Therapy ............................................................................265
10.2.1 Minimally Invasive Procedures .........................................................266
10.2.2 Ablation Techniques ..........................................................................267
10.2.3 Clinical Applications .........................................................................267
10.2.3.1 Liver ....................................................................................268
10.2.3.2 Lung ....................................................................................269
10.2.3.3 Prostate ................................................................................269
10.2.3.4 Kidney .................................................................................269
10.2.3.5 Breast................................................................................... 270
10.2.3.6 Bone .................................................................................... 270
10.2.3.7 Cardiac Diseases ................................................................. 270
10.3 RF Ablation ................................................................................................... 271
10.3.1 Technical Considerations .................................................................. 271
10.3.1.1 Mechanisms ........................................................................ 271
10.3.1.2 Electrodes and Approaches ................................................. 272
10.3.1.3 Multiple Applicators ........................................................... 273
10.3.1.4 Localization ........................................................................ 274
10.3.1.5 Thermal–Electrical Modeling ............................................. 274
10.3.2 Clinical Advantages and Applications .............................................. 275
10.3.2.1 Cancer Treatment ................................................................ 275
10.3.2.2 Cardiac Diseases ................................................................. 278
10.3.2.3 Snoring and Obstructive Sleep Apnea (OSA) ..................... 279
10.3.3 Limitations ........................................................................................280
10.3.4 Complications ....................................................................................280
10.4 Microwave Ablation ......................................................................................282
10.4.1 Technical Considerations ..................................................................282
10.4.1.1 Mechanisms ........................................................................282
10.4.1.2 Antenna Designs .................................................................283
10.4.1.3 Multiple Insertions and Multiple Antennas ........................284
10.4.2 Clinical Advantages and Applications ..............................................285
10.4.2.1 Treating Cancer ...................................................................285
10.4.2.2 Cardiac Diseases .................................................................286
10.4.2.3 Microwave Endometrial Ablation (MEA) ..........................288
10.4.3 Limitations ........................................................................................289
10.4.4 Complications ....................................................................................290
10.5 Trends and Future Research ..........................................................................290
10.5.1 Improved Techniques ........................................................................290
10.5.2 Ablation in Clinical Practice ............................................................. 291
10.5.3 Future Research .................................................................................292
References ..............................................................................................................293
PART III Dosimetry and Imaging
Chapter 11 Electromagnetic and Thermal Dosimetry ...................................... 311
11.1 Introduction ................................................................................................. 311
11.2 EM Interaction with Biological Materials ................................................... 311
11.3 Modeling Power Deposition ........................................................................ 314
11.3.1 Techniques for Low Frequencies ................................................... 315
11.3.2 Techniques for Radiofrequency Radiation .................................... 315
11.3.2.1 Analytical Techniques ................................................... 315
11.3.2.2 Numerical Techniques ................................................... 315
11.4 Specifi c Absorption Rate Modeling ............................................................. 316
11.4.1 Thermal Dose ................................................................................ 317
11.4.2 Thermal Measurements ................................................................. 318
11.5 Bioheat Equation .......................................................................................... 319
11.5.1 Pennes Model ................................................................................. 319
11.5.1.1 Bioheat Equation ...........................................................320
11.5.1.2 Limitations .................................................................... 321
11.5.1.3 Analysis Based on Pennes’ Equation ............................ 321
11.5.2 Wissler Model ................................................................................ 322
11.5.3 Stolwijik Model .............................................................................. 323
11.5.4 Weinbaum–Jiji Model .................................................................... 323
11.5.5 Baish Model ...................................................................................324
11.5.6 Applications of Bioheat Transfer Models ......................................324
11.6 Thermal Therapy Planning System ............................................................. 325
11.6.1 Objectives and Requirements ........................................................326
11.6.2 Developments in TTPS .................................................................. 327
11.6.3 Thermal Monitoring ...................................................................... 327
11.7 Status and Trends ......................................................................................... 328
References .............................................................................................................. 328
Chapter 12 Thermometry and Imaging ............................................................. 337
12.1 Introduction .................................................................................................. 337
12.2 Development of Thermometry ..................................................................... 338
12.3 Invasive Techniques ..................................................................................... 339
12.3.1 Thermoelectric Thermometry ....................................................... 339
12.3.2 Thermistor .....................................................................................340
12.3.3 Optical Fiber Thermometer ........................................................... 341
12.3.4 Applications and Comparison ........................................................ 341
12.4 Noninvasive Techniques ..............................................................................342
12.4.1 Ultrasound ...................................................................................... 343
12.4.1.1 Apparatus ...................................................................... 343
12.4.1.2 Advantages and Limitations ..........................................344
12.4.1.3 Two- to Three-Dimensional
Ultrasonography ............................................................344
12.4.2 Magnetic Resonance Imaging........................................................345
12.4.2.1 Operation .......................................................................346
12.4.2.2 Advantages .................................................................... 347
12.4.3 Microwave Radiometric Imaging .................................................. 347
12.4.4 Terahertz Technology ....................................................................348
12.4.4.1 Characteristics of THz Radiation ..................................349
12.4.4.2 THz-Ray System ............................................................ 350
12.4.4.3 Challenges ..................................................................... 351
12.4.5 X-Ray Computed Tomography ...................................................... 352
12.4.5.1 Conventional CT Scanners ............................................ 352
12.4.5.2 Spiral (Helical) CT Scanners ........................................ 352
12.4.5.3 Multislice CT Scanners ................................................. 353
12.4.6 THz-Ray CT .................................................................................. 353
12.5 Status and Trends ......................................................................................... 354
References .............................................................................................................. 355
Acronyms and Abbreviations .............................................................................. 361
Index ......................................................................................................................365

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