Wireless Ad Hoc and Sensor Networks: A Cross-Layer Design Perspective
Raja Jurdak
University College Dublin
Dublín, Ireland
Library of Congress Control Number: 2006935264
ISBN 978-0-387-39022-2 e-ISBN 978-0-387-39023-9
ISBN 0-387-39022-7 e-ISBN 0-387-39023-5
Printed on acid-free paper.
© 2007 Springer Science+Business Media, LLC.
Contents
1 Ad Hoc and Sensor Networks: Opportunities and
Challenges ................................................. 1
Part I Layered Communication Approaches
2PhysicalLayer ............................................. 7
2.1 CommunicationMedia ................................... 8
2.1.1 WiredCommunication ............................. 8
2.1.2 WirelessCommunication ........................... 9
2.2 CommunicationTechnologies ............................. 10
2.2.1 Point-to-PointCommunicationTechnologies .......... 10
2.2.2 BroadcastCommunicationTechnologies .............. 11
2.3 PhysicalLayerOptimizationParameters ................... 13
2.3.1 TransmissionPower ............................... 13
2.3.2 Processing Power . ................................. 13
2.3.3 SensingPower .................................... 14
2.3.4 Signal-to-NoiseRatio .............................. 14
2.3.5 TransmissionRate................................. 14
2.3.6 ModulationCodeandRate......................... 15
3 Data Link Layer ........................................... 17
3.1 Introduction ............................................ 18
3.1.1 ProtocolOverview................................. 18
3.2 Channel Separation and Access . .......................... 20
3.2.1 SingleChannel.................................... 20
3.2.2 MultipleChannels................................. 24
3.2.3 Channel Separation and Access Summary . ........... 29
3.3 TransmissionInitiation................................... 29
3.3.1 Sender-Initiated................................... 29
3.3.2 Receiver-Initiated . . ............................... 30XContents
3.3.3 TransmissionInitiationSummary.................... 30
3.4 Topology............................................... 31
3.4.1 SingleHopFlatTopology .......................... 31
3.4.2 MultipleHopFlatTopology ........................ 32
3.4.3 ClusteredTopology................................ 33
3.4.4 CentralizedTopology .............................. 34
3.4.5 TopologySummary................................ 35
3.5 Power.................................................. 35
3.5.1 TransmitPowerControl............................ 35
3.5.2 SleepMode....................................... 36
3.5.3 BatteryLevelAwareness ........................... 37
3.5.4 ReducedControlOverhead ......................... 38
3.5.5 Savings forParticularSettings ...................... 38
3.5.6 IncreasedControlOverhead ........................ 39
3.5.7 PowerSummary................................... 39
3.6 Traffic Load and Scalability ............................... 40
3.6.1 Highly Loaded Networks ........................... 40
3.6.2 DenseNetworks................................... 41
3.6.3 VoiceandReal-TimeTraffic ........................ 41
3.6.4 UnattendedLong-TermOperation................... 42
3.6.5 MoreSelectiveScenarios ........................... 42
3.6.6 Traffic Load and Scalability Summary................ 43
3.7 Logical Link Control . . ................................... 43
3.8 ConclusionandDiscussion................................ 44
4 Network Layer ............................................. 45
4.1 Route State Dissemination................................ 47
4.1.1 ProactiveRoutingProtocols ........................ 47
4.1.2 Reactive ......................................... 50
4.1.3 Hybrid........................................... 53
4.2 Topology............................................... 54
4.2.1 SingleHopandCentralizedTopologies ............... 54
4.2.2 MultipleHopFlatTopology ........................ 55
4.2.3 ClusteredTopology................................ 55
4.2.4 MultilevelHierarchicalNetworks .................... 57
4.3 MultipathRouting ...................................... 58
4.4 Power-awareness ........................................ 59
4.5 GeographicalRouting.................................... 61
4.6 Quality-of-Service ....................................... 62
5 Transport and Middleware Layers ......................... 65
5.1 TransportLayer......................................... 66
5.1.1 TCPandUDP.................................... 66
5.1.2 AdHocNetworkTransportProtocols ................ 68
5.1.3 SensorNetworkTransportProtocols ................. 70Contents XI
5.2 Middleware............................................. 72
5.2.1 MiddlewareforAdHocNetworks.................... 73
5.2.2 MiddlewareforSensorNetworks..................... 74
6 Application Layer ......................................... 77
6.1 AdHocNetworks ....................................... 77
6.1.1 Ad Hoc Network Application Classes . ............... 77
6.1.2 ApplicationPerformanceMetrics .................... 79
6.2 SensorNetworks......................................... 82
6.2.1 Data Dissemination . . . ............................. 82
6.2.2 ApplicationPerformanceMetrics .................... 84
Part II Cross-Layer Approaches
7 Cross-Layer Design ........................................ 89
7.1 Cross-LayerDesign:ADefinition .......................... 89
7.2 Cross-LayerDesignforTraditionalNetworks................ 91
7.3 Why Cross-Layer Design for Ad Hoc and Sensor Networks? . . . 92
7.3.1 AnAnalogy ...................................... 92
7.3.2 MotivatingFactors ................................ 93
7.3.3 DesignChallenges ................................. 96
7.4 Cross-LayerDesignGuidelines ............................ 97
7.4.1 Compatibility . . ................................... 97
7.4.2 Richer Interactions ................................ 98
7.4.3 FlexibleandTunable .............................. 98
8 Cross-Layer Architectures .................................101
8.1 AdHocNetworks .......................................101
8.1.1 MobileMan .......................................102
8.1.2 CrossTalk ........................................103
8.2 SensorNetworks.........................................104
8.2.1 SensorProtocol ...................................105
8.2.2 TinyCubus . . . ....................................106
8.2.3 Lu...............................................107
8.3 AdHocandSensorNetworks .............................108
8.3.1 Jurdak...........................................108
9 Applied Cross-Layer Approaches ..........................111
9.1 DesignCouplingApproaches..............................112
9.1.1 GiriciandEphremides .............................112
9.1.2 CruzandSanthanam ..............................115
9.1.3 ElBattandEphremides ............................116
9.1.4 Kozat............................................117
9.1.5 LuandKrishnamachari ............................119XII Contents
9.1.6 Madan...........................................120
9.1.7 Cui..............................................122
9.1.8 WangandKar ....................................123
9.1.9 Merz.............................................124
9.2 InformationSharingApproaches...........................125
9.2.1 Sichitiu ..........................................126
9.2.2 Chen ............................................128
9.2.3 SensorProtocol ...................................130
9.2.4 Jurdak...........................................131
9.3 GlobalPerformanceGoals ................................134
9.3.1 MaximizeNetworkLifetime.........................134
9.3.2 EnergyEfficiency..................................135
9.3.3 Maximize Throughput .............................137
9.3.4 MinimizeDelay ...................................138
9.3.5 PromoteFairness..................................138
9.3.6 Data Accessibility . . ...............................139
9.3.7 EfficiencyandGenerality...........................139
9.4 TargetNetworks ........................................140
9.4.1 AdHocNetworks .................................140
9.4.2 SensorNetworks ..................................142
9.5 Input Aspects ...........................................143
9.5.1 ApplicationLayer .................................144
9.5.2 MiddlewareLayer .................................144
9.5.3 TransportLayer...................................144
9.5.4 NetworkLayer ....................................145
9.5.5 DataLinkLayer ..................................146
9.5.6 PhysicalLayer ....................................146
9.6 ConfigurationOptimizations ..............................148
9.6.1 Middleware.......................................148
9.6.2 TransportLayer...................................149
9.6.3 NetworkLayer ....................................149
9.6.4 DataLinkLayer ..................................150
9.6.5 PhysicalLayer ....................................150
9.7 Implementation .........................................151
9.7.1 Unspecified.......................................151
9.7.2 Centralized.......................................152
9.7.3 Distributed.......................................153
9.8 Conclusion .............................................153
Part III Case StudiesContents XIII
10 Optimization of an RF Sensor Network ....................157
10.1 Introduction ............................................157
10.2 RelatedWork...........................................160
10.2.1 CostOptimization.................................160
10.2.2 EnergyEfficiency..................................160
10.3 AdaptiveLowPowerListening ............................162
10.3.1 AdaptiveLowPowerListening......................162
10.3.2 NodeCollaboration................................163
10.3.3 State Representations ..............................165
10.3.4 CostFunction.....................................167
10.3.5 RoutingModifications .............................170
10.4 QualitativeAnalysis .....................................170
10.4.1 Topology.........................................171
10.4.2 CaseStudy.......................................172
10.4.3 DutyCycle .......................................175
10.4.4 Role .............................................176
10.5 DeploymentResults .....................................176
10.5.1 Time-DrivenSensorNetwork .......................177
10.5.2 Event-DrivenSensorNetwork.......................181
10.6 Discussion..............................................186
11 UWB Ad Hoc Network ....................................189
11.1 Introduction ............................................190
11.2 UWBNetworkPrinciples.................................192
11.2.1 UWBPrinciples...................................192
11.2.2 UWBTrafficClasses...............................193
11.3 U-MACProtocol ........................................194
11.3.1 ProblemDefinition ................................194
11.3.2 ProtocolOverview.................................195
11.3.3 Topology.........................................197
11.3.4 HelloMessages....................................197
11.3.5 RateandPowerAssignment ........................199
11.3.6 MSIMargin ......................................204
11.4 SimulationandResults...................................205
11.4.1 SimulationParameters .............................206
11.4.2 Results...........................................207
11.5 DiscussionandConclusion................................214
12 Acoustic Underwater Sensor Network .....................217
12.1 Introduction ............................................217
12.2 Related ................................................219
12.3 NetworkBatteryLifeEstimationMethod...................220
12.3.1 NetworkDesignParameters ........................221
12.3.2 Underwater Acoustics Fundamentals . ................224
12.3.3 DataDelivery.....................................226XIV Contents
12.3.4 NetworkLifetimeandPowerConsumption ...........227
12.4 Topology-DependentOptimizations........................228
12.4.1 RequiredModifications.............................229
12.5 PerformanceEvaluation..................................229
12.5.1 Tier-IndependentMethod ..........................230
12.5.2 Tier-DependentAssignments........................231
12.5.3 GridTopology ....................................233
12.6 Discussion..............................................237
12.6.1 MaximumRangeAlternatives.......................237
12.6.2 MethodTradeoffs .................................237
12.6.3 GridTopology ....................................237
12.6.4 Self-RechargingSensors ............................238
12.6.5 Method Applicability ..............................238
Concluding Remarks and Future Directions....................241
Extended Cost Function .......................................243
References .....................................................247
Index ..........................................................261
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